The Swine Industry

All welfare issues contain a number of opinions from the various sectors involved, such as the farmers, legislators, scientists, consumers, and activists. As a welfare issue arises, the industry can react in various ways as a result of these selective pressures. The industry voluntarily respond in two ways: it can self-police and proactively resolve the issue, or can make a decision based upon scientific recommendations. Or, the industry can be mandated to change their practices through legal actions. These laws may be based on scientific information, public opinions, or on activist pressure. In the swine industry, two welfare issues that are currently facing a lot of activist pressures are the use of gestation crates and the castration of baby pigs.

Gestation crates are 2 X 7ft stalls which limit sows to standing, sitting, and laying down in one direction. In some cases sows are maintained in gestation crates for the entire length of gestation, then transferred to a farrowing crate, and finally being returned to the gestation crate for re-breeding and the cycle to continue. In other cases, the sow may be kept in a gestation crate for the first month of pregnancy and then is put into a group pen to complete gestation before entering the farrowing crate. The farmers use these gestation crates to maximize the number of sows per building, decrease the number of injuries to sows from fighting, allow for the individual feeding of sows, and to allow the farmer to easily assess sows health since they are aligned in a manner which makes them easier to compare to one another. Activists whom disagree with the use of gestation crates feel that limiting the sows to sitting, standing and laying is inhumane because the sows cannot turn around and it limits their natural behaviors. From a scientific perspective the welfare of pregnant sows-based upon physiology, behavior, performance and health is the same for sows kept in well managed gestation crates as those kept in a group pen. Research has shown that when given the choice between a group pen or a gestation create pregnant sows choose to spend most of their time in the crates and steriotypies-unexplainable, ritualistic movement such as bar biting, are equally prevalent in sows kept in group pens as sows kept in gestation crates. Many experiments have also shown advantages to both systems. For example sows kept in a gestation crate are leaner, and are more feed-efficient, whereas sows kept in group pens reach puberty at an early age.

Male pigs are castrated to prevent the risk of “boar taint” and to allow for easier handling of the pigs. “Boar taint” is caused by the hormones androsterone, which is produced in the testicles, and by sketole and indole, produced by the digestive tract. Sketole is produced in all pigs and is usually metabolized and eliminated. However increasing levels of testosterone inhibit it’s clearance forcing the molecule to remain in the body, so as the boars age androsterone and sketole accumulate in the fat. This produces a displeasing smell when the product is cooked, and an off-taste. Since boar meat cannot be sold producers must remove the boars not breeding from meat production in some way despite the fact that there is scientific evidence that piglet welfare is temporarily compromised. Castration is one of the most efficient and effective ways for farmers to prevent boar taint and boar behavior, however due to the welfare concerns some countries have required that castrations be performed by a licensed veterinarian with the addition of analgesics or anesthesia. Other countries have opted to avoid castrations through slaughtering before they reach puberty, at a much lighter weight. This removes the “boar taint” from the product but does not prevent boar behaviors. There is also a way to avoid castrations through the use of a vaccine called Improvac which inhibits GnRH production-in turn preventing testosterone production. This prevents “boar taint,” hormone based behaviors, and a brief decrease in pig welfare. However, there is a lot of public and activist concern about the use of hormone treatments in animals and although the vaccine is due to soon be approved in the United States, many farmers are concerned that if they implement a program to vaccinate against GnRH instead of castrate they will not be able to sell their products.

Livestock and Environmental Concerns

Reducing the environmental impact of livestock farms is an important consideration for all members of the livestock industry as it not only affects production, but affects the rest of society as well. The main environmental concerns are pathogens and disease- such as Salmonella and Avian Influenza, air quality-such as methane and ammonia levels, and nutrient concentrations in the soil and water. Over the past 90 years agricultural practices have become much more specialized and efficient, resulting in an increased production in the same land constraints. This increased efficiency has allowed for tremendous increases in standards of living, but has also been associated with growing environmental concerns.

One of these environmental concerns is a nutrient imbalance in the soil, as crops are shipped in to livestock, which excrete excess nutrients in a location where they are not required. In doing such, the portion of the land where crops were grown has a nutrient deficit, and the area where livestock are produced experiences a nutrient excess in the soil. The main nutrients of concern are nitrogen and phosphorous, as these are excreted in much higher quantities than plants need, and then become part of the water cycle as rain allows the excess nutrients to run-off the soil with the surface water, or the nutrients seep down to contaminate the ground water stores. Nitrogen and phosphorous can be contributed to the environment through livestock, detergents, human sewage, fertilizers, urban storm water, and atmospheric deposition.

This increasing imbalance in nitrogen and phosphorous is of concern for a number of reasons. Nitrates in the ground water can contaminate available drinking water and cause a potentially lethal condition , one of the Blue Baby Syndromes where the oxygen in blood is replaced by nitrate, depriving infants who consume contaminated water of oxygen. Also of major concern is that the increase in nitrogen and phosphorous in water allows for increased algae growth. Eventually, as the algae dies it sucks all of the oxygen from the water which kills all of the fish in the area. The algae bloom also prevents light from penetrating the surface of the water, which inhibits the growth of important aquatic plants. The Gulf of Mexico contains an algae bloom the size of Rhode Island that results in massive fish and plant die-offs every summer.

Although there are methods used to filtrate and cleanse water, waste-water treatment plants are designed to reduce the levels of nitrogen and pathogens in the water, not remove phosphorous. The treatment plants are also designed to allow storm water to overflow and bypass the treatment stage so that the facilities do not flood or back up. This however, means that large amounts of run-off carried by storm waters are bypassing filtration, and the levels of phosphorous contaminating the environment is much greater than nitrogen. The cost of altering water treatment plants to handle phosphorous and filter through storm water would cost billions per state, making the updates unfeasible without an increase in taxes.

There are proactive measures taken by livestock producers to minimize environmental contamination. Producers can compost manure to kill pathogens, or use an anaerobic digester to break down organic matter and capture the methane produced to generate electricity. Proper fencing is also very important. Livestock should be fenced out of streams, and if possible a strip of land referred to as a buffer strip should be in between the pasture and water source. This buffer should maintain any feasible difference between the fence line and water-such as five to fifteen feet, though a thirty-five foot buffer is optimal. The purpose of the buffer is to create as much distance as possible for the nutrients to be absorbed or utilized before ending up as part of the water system.

It is important not only for livestock producers but for all members of society to do their part to reduce environmental pollution, as well as to clean up areas which have already been effected by high levels of pollutants, in order to maintain the standards of living to which we have become accustomed.

Food Safety

One of the principle concerns of all those involved in food animal production is the safety of the retail product provided to the consumer. Consumer perceptions of product safety directly affect the product sold and thus indirectly affect the producers, processors, and retail stores. The etiological agents of 60-70% of all foodborne illness outbreaks are unknown. Until the 1980’s  E.coli O17:H7 and Salmonella, two of the most important microorganisms to concerns in food safety were unknown. Through increasing knowledge of foodborne pathogens many sicknesses that could not previously be diagnosed, now can. This however, results in the public perceiving a decline in food safety which has not occurred.

Organic and Natural foods reflect a consumers desire for product standards. However, the beliefs that these products are somehow safer or better for you or the environment is not supported by good science. While some consumers may believe that cattle marketed as natural or grass-fed have no E.coli O17:H7 this is not true. Some studies have shown that organic production actually results in an increase in bacterial growth. Since these practices cannot control the microbial populations in the animal it is likely that any bacteria which proliferate inside the digestive system of the animal would also be shed into the environment at a higher level.

Animal manure is a major source of foodborne pathogens, since controlled microorganisms live in the digestive systems of all animals. Many foodborne pathogens can be spread through direct contamination with manure, as well as contamination of soils and water sources. E.coli O17:H7 has been found in apple cider, alfalfa sprouts, spinach, and  lettuce, and salmonella has been found in cantaloupes, watermelon, alfalfa sprouts, and tomatoes as a result of contamination. Manure control is important in food safety at the producer and processor levels to ensure that animal products, soil, and water sources are not exposed to potentially harmful levels of enteric microorganisms.

Dr. Sofos of Colorado State University stated that:                          

 “The best strategy for improving microbial quality of meat is by applying antimicrobial intervention technologies that:

            Reduce contamination on the raw product (live animal)

Minimize access of microorganisms to the product

Reduce contamination that has gained access to product

Inactivate microorganisms on products without cross-contamination

Prevent or control growth of microorganisms which have gained access.”

This includes manure control, ensuring animal heath, as well as proper food handling and storage on all levels of the food industry- from the producer to the consumer-through performance and processing standards.

Risk assessment based food safety objectives should be created prior to setting performance and processing criteria for the food service industry. For example, a Zero-Tolerance policy was initiated for the bacterium L. monocytogenes, however it is hard to measure at very low levels; it also has been established that less than 100 cells will not induce foodborne illness, so enforcing zero-tolerance rather than allowing an acceptable low level has resulted in an increased cost to the industry and to tax payers at no additional safety. Since regulation of food safety is highly political and enforced by numerous national and international  a high degree of harmonization is required.

Many foodborne illnesses are associated with poor food handling at the consumer level. Improper temperature control, both in storage and cooking  of meat products, is often the leading cause of foodborne illnesses. Cooking  foods to 160 degrees Fahrenheit ensures that any possible contaminants are killed, and can prevent infections of Salmonella and E.coli. Through public education efforts, consumer knowledge is increasing however there is still a lot that can be done to ensure food safety.