The Swine Industry

All welfare issues contain a number of opinions from the various sectors involved, such as the farmers, legislators, scientists, consumers, and activists. As a welfare issue arises, the industry can react in various ways as a result of these selective pressures. The industry voluntarily respond in two ways: it can self-police and proactively resolve the issue, or can make a decision based upon scientific recommendations. Or, the industry can be mandated to change their practices through legal actions. These laws may be based on scientific information, public opinions, or on activist pressure. In the swine industry, two welfare issues that are currently facing a lot of activist pressures are the use of gestation crates and the castration of baby pigs.

Gestation crates are 2 X 7ft stalls which limit sows to standing, sitting, and laying down in one direction. In some cases sows are maintained in gestation crates for the entire length of gestation, then transferred to a farrowing crate, and finally being returned to the gestation crate for re-breeding and the cycle to continue. In other cases, the sow may be kept in a gestation crate for the first month of pregnancy and then is put into a group pen to complete gestation before entering the farrowing crate. The farmers use these gestation crates to maximize the number of sows per building, decrease the number of injuries to sows from fighting, allow for the individual feeding of sows, and to allow the farmer to easily assess sows health since they are aligned in a manner which makes them easier to compare to one another. Activists whom disagree with the use of gestation crates feel that limiting the sows to sitting, standing and laying is inhumane because the sows cannot turn around and it limits their natural behaviors. From a scientific perspective the welfare of pregnant sows-based upon physiology, behavior, performance and health is the same for sows kept in well managed gestation crates as those kept in a group pen. Research has shown that when given the choice between a group pen or a gestation create pregnant sows choose to spend most of their time in the crates and steriotypies-unexplainable, ritualistic movement such as bar biting, are equally prevalent in sows kept in group pens as sows kept in gestation crates. Many experiments have also shown advantages to both systems. For example sows kept in a gestation crate are leaner, and are more feed-efficient, whereas sows kept in group pens reach puberty at an early age.

Male pigs are castrated to prevent the risk of “boar taint” and to allow for easier handling of the pigs. “Boar taint” is caused by the hormones androsterone, which is produced in the testicles, and by sketole and indole, produced by the digestive tract. Sketole is produced in all pigs and is usually metabolized and eliminated. However increasing levels of testosterone inhibit it’s clearance forcing the molecule to remain in the body, so as the boars age androsterone and sketole accumulate in the fat. This produces a displeasing smell when the product is cooked, and an off-taste. Since boar meat cannot be sold producers must remove the boars not breeding from meat production in some way despite the fact that there is scientific evidence that piglet welfare is temporarily compromised. Castration is one of the most efficient and effective ways for farmers to prevent boar taint and boar behavior, however due to the welfare concerns some countries have required that castrations be performed by a licensed veterinarian with the addition of analgesics or anesthesia. Other countries have opted to avoid castrations through slaughtering before they reach puberty, at a much lighter weight. This removes the “boar taint” from the product but does not prevent boar behaviors. There is also a way to avoid castrations through the use of a vaccine called Improvac which inhibits GnRH production-in turn preventing testosterone production. This prevents “boar taint,” hormone based behaviors, and a brief decrease in pig welfare. However, there is a lot of public and activist concern about the use of hormone treatments in animals and although the vaccine is due to soon be approved in the United States, many farmers are concerned that if they implement a program to vaccinate against GnRH instead of castrate they will not be able to sell their products.

Livestock and Environmental Concerns

Reducing the environmental impact of livestock farms is an important consideration for all members of the livestock industry as it not only affects production, but affects the rest of society as well. The main environmental concerns are pathogens and disease- such as Salmonella and Avian Influenza, air quality-such as methane and ammonia levels, and nutrient concentrations in the soil and water. Over the past 90 years agricultural practices have become much more specialized and efficient, resulting in an increased production in the same land constraints. This increased efficiency has allowed for tremendous increases in standards of living, but has also been associated with growing environmental concerns.

One of these environmental concerns is a nutrient imbalance in the soil, as crops are shipped in to livestock, which excrete excess nutrients in a location where they are not required. In doing such, the portion of the land where crops were grown has a nutrient deficit, and the area where livestock are produced experiences a nutrient excess in the soil. The main nutrients of concern are nitrogen and phosphorous, as these are excreted in much higher quantities than plants need, and then become part of the water cycle as rain allows the excess nutrients to run-off the soil with the surface water, or the nutrients seep down to contaminate the ground water stores. Nitrogen and phosphorous can be contributed to the environment through livestock, detergents, human sewage, fertilizers, urban storm water, and atmospheric deposition.

This increasing imbalance in nitrogen and phosphorous is of concern for a number of reasons. Nitrates in the ground water can contaminate available drinking water and cause a potentially lethal condition , one of the Blue Baby Syndromes where the oxygen in blood is replaced by nitrate, depriving infants who consume contaminated water of oxygen. Also of major concern is that the increase in nitrogen and phosphorous in water allows for increased algae growth. Eventually, as the algae dies it sucks all of the oxygen from the water which kills all of the fish in the area. The algae bloom also prevents light from penetrating the surface of the water, which inhibits the growth of important aquatic plants. The Gulf of Mexico contains an algae bloom the size of Rhode Island that results in massive fish and plant die-offs every summer.

Although there are methods used to filtrate and cleanse water, waste-water treatment plants are designed to reduce the levels of nitrogen and pathogens in the water, not remove phosphorous. The treatment plants are also designed to allow storm water to overflow and bypass the treatment stage so that the facilities do not flood or back up. This however, means that large amounts of run-off carried by storm waters are bypassing filtration, and the levels of phosphorous contaminating the environment is much greater than nitrogen. The cost of altering water treatment plants to handle phosphorous and filter through storm water would cost billions per state, making the updates unfeasible without an increase in taxes.

There are proactive measures taken by livestock producers to minimize environmental contamination. Producers can compost manure to kill pathogens, or use an anaerobic digester to break down organic matter and capture the methane produced to generate electricity. Proper fencing is also very important. Livestock should be fenced out of streams, and if possible a strip of land referred to as a buffer strip should be in between the pasture and water source. This buffer should maintain any feasible difference between the fence line and water-such as five to fifteen feet, though a thirty-five foot buffer is optimal. The purpose of the buffer is to create as much distance as possible for the nutrients to be absorbed or utilized before ending up as part of the water system.

It is important not only for livestock producers but for all members of society to do their part to reduce environmental pollution, as well as to clean up areas which have already been effected by high levels of pollutants, in order to maintain the standards of living to which we have become accustomed.

Food Safety

One of the principle concerns of all those involved in food animal production is the safety of the retail product provided to the consumer. Consumer perceptions of product safety directly affect the product sold and thus indirectly affect the producers, processors, and retail stores. The etiological agents of 60-70% of all foodborne illness outbreaks are unknown. Until the 1980’s  E.coli O17:H7 and Salmonella, two of the most important microorganisms to concerns in food safety were unknown. Through increasing knowledge of foodborne pathogens many sicknesses that could not previously be diagnosed, now can. This however, results in the public perceiving a decline in food safety which has not occurred.

Organic and Natural foods reflect a consumers desire for product standards. However, the beliefs that these products are somehow safer or better for you or the environment is not supported by good science. While some consumers may believe that cattle marketed as natural or grass-fed have no E.coli O17:H7 this is not true. Some studies have shown that organic production actually results in an increase in bacterial growth. Since these practices cannot control the microbial populations in the animal it is likely that any bacteria which proliferate inside the digestive system of the animal would also be shed into the environment at a higher level.

Animal manure is a major source of foodborne pathogens, since controlled microorganisms live in the digestive systems of all animals. Many foodborne pathogens can be spread through direct contamination with manure, as well as contamination of soils and water sources. E.coli O17:H7 has been found in apple cider, alfalfa sprouts, spinach, and  lettuce, and salmonella has been found in cantaloupes, watermelon, alfalfa sprouts, and tomatoes as a result of contamination. Manure control is important in food safety at the producer and processor levels to ensure that animal products, soil, and water sources are not exposed to potentially harmful levels of enteric microorganisms.

Dr. Sofos of Colorado State University stated that:                          

 “The best strategy for improving microbial quality of meat is by applying antimicrobial intervention technologies that:

            Reduce contamination on the raw product (live animal)

Minimize access of microorganisms to the product

Reduce contamination that has gained access to product

Inactivate microorganisms on products without cross-contamination

Prevent or control growth of microorganisms which have gained access.”

This includes manure control, ensuring animal heath, as well as proper food handling and storage on all levels of the food industry- from the producer to the consumer-through performance and processing standards.

Risk assessment based food safety objectives should be created prior to setting performance and processing criteria for the food service industry. For example, a Zero-Tolerance policy was initiated for the bacterium L. monocytogenes, however it is hard to measure at very low levels; it also has been established that less than 100 cells will not induce foodborne illness, so enforcing zero-tolerance rather than allowing an acceptable low level has resulted in an increased cost to the industry and to tax payers at no additional safety. Since regulation of food safety is highly political and enforced by numerous national and international  a high degree of harmonization is required.

Many foodborne illnesses are associated with poor food handling at the consumer level. Improper temperature control, both in storage and cooking  of meat products, is often the leading cause of foodborne illnesses. Cooking  foods to 160 degrees Fahrenheit ensures that any possible contaminants are killed, and can prevent infections of Salmonella and E.coli. Through public education efforts, consumer knowledge is increasing however there is still a lot that can be done to ensure food safety.

The Beef Cattle Industry

            The unemployment rate in the United States is currently reported to be a 9.6%, however this number only refers to those individuals receiving unemployment benefits and actively searching for employment. The U6 unemployment rate, which includes people who have run out of benefits and given up on searching for work, is 16%. As a result the food service industry has experienced the greatest monetary decline in has seen in twenty-eight years. Fortunately for producers the demand for beef has not substantially declined, only the value of products. However, as the value of of beef has decreased, the input costs to producers-especially corn, has increased. Corn prices began rising sharply driven by the price of oil, but even after economic downturn corn prices continued to grow, supported by subsidies. These increased prices have forced farmers to find alternate feed sources in an attempt to balance the input costs with the decrease in product value. Farmers have also decreased their herd sizes while increasing the size of individual cows and thus increasing the pounds of beef produced. This however has resulted in increased feed costs, which the producers must be aware of. Despite the decrease in product value, and increase in input costs, producers with cow/ calf herds have a potential to make a profit in the future as feeder calf process continue to increase.

            International trade is also very important to beef producers. The biggest trading partners with the United States, in relation to beef exports, are Mexico, Canada, Japan, Vietnam, and South Korea. These markets have a lot of potential to continue to grow, along with exports to Colombia and Panama; however, in order to effectively establish beef exports to these countries free trade agreements need to be established. Free trade agreements remove the boundaries against trading with a country, such as tariffs, so can be beneficial to the nation as a whole but can also can harm areas that can no longer produce products at the cheapest prices.

            The safety of the food supply is a concern internationally and domestically. In international trade, age verification becomes a limiting factor in exporting meat, especially to Japan, as method used to prevent the introduction of BSE or “mad cow” into the country. Other considerations, such as antibiotic usage in the live animals can affect exports as well as domestic sales. The concern about antibiotic resistance and growing support of “organic” production has greatly affected the beef industry. Organic products receive an average price increase of 73% versus the “non-organic” counterparts. This increase in price is based almost entirely on consumer ideals, although the cost of production to organic producers is increased. The concept of “organic” to consumers goes hand in hand with animal rights. Both of these concepts, however,  result in numerous challenges to all animal production industries. Despite what many animal rights activists and groups, such as PETA and the Humane Society of The Unites States, would have the public believe-producers do their best to ensure that their livestock are healthy and stressed as little as possible, as sick and stressed animals result in profit loss to the producer. Furthermore, PETA and HSUS have stated numerous times that their goal is to abolish all animal agriculture-and neither group actually supports any humane shelters or animal welfare groups.

            The other large concern of livestock industries, including beef production is government regulation. There are numerous governmental challenges to the industry but the two major concerns are currently the change in estate tax that will occur in 2011, and the changes to the USDA Grain Inspection, Packers, and Stockyard Administration. In 2011 the estate tax laws will change  in a manner that will increase the tax rate to 55% after the first million dollars. In terms of beef producers with land values currently as high as they are if a farm owner dies next year the resulting estate tax will cause the family to break up the property, and possibly pursue other careers-breaking up family farms. The changes to GIPSA are an attempt to keep pricing between packers and stockyards fair, but will completely remove the price incentives to produce high quality products.

The Sheep Industry

Due to the steady decline in demand for lamb and wool in the United States, the industry has a very small size compared to the other livestock industries. This small size makes the marketing and processing of animals difficult as there is a lack of competition and availability among producers and processing plants. Further compounding this decrease is a lack of production chain incentives, such as value added or superior quality incentives, which causes everything to be valued at the same price regardless of its actual worth. This provides no driving factor to get into the industry or to provide high quality products in a large quantities. Due to the small size, the industry also has very little political clout making it difficult for the industry to stand up for its practices or against limiting regulations. Fortunately the sheep industry can work together with other producers, such as the beef and pork industries, to maintain politics.

The sheep industry faces challenges affecting environmental and animal care and welfare concerns, as all other livestock industries, but has more regional diversity than pork and poultry production. The western flocks are often kept on public lands, such as National Parks, and with that face many challenges that eastern producers do not. With public land use environmental concerns are more focused as the land is shared with residents of the United States for recreational use. In these areas predator control is also evaluated more critically as National Parks are often used as release sites for wolves and other carnivores that enjoy preying on sheep, and because the use of guardian protection dogs in recreational areas can cause many problems with park visitors and their pets.

Predator control is a problem for all producers, regardless of regional diversities. Predators cause a substantial amount of loss to producers,  but methods of predator control are often highly criticized, as they usually result in the death of the predator and in some cases, such as with the Gray Wolf, this might conflict with the Endangered Species Act. As an attempt to help producers recover production losses due to predation, the USDA Wildlife Services provides federal and state funding as compensation. To raise money for predator control funding, Virginia has instituted a check off program, where every lamb sold is taxed 50¢. Although this does provide funding to assist with predator control,  some producers are against the discount creating some internal discourse in the industry.

Another controversy faced by all regions of the industry is that imports of lamb could overtake the domestic supply. Even though on average Americans only consume a pound of lamb per year, current domestic production levels cannot meet this demand. Imports from New Zealand and Australia are often brought in, but since these lambs are produced much more efficiently than domestically produced lambs, they usually result in less cost to the consumer making the imports a more attractive source of lamb. In an attempt to balance the costs the import of lamb gets tariffs, or taxed to be brought into the country, but this affects the United States abilities on the global market. Mandatory price reporting has also been initiated to attempt to keep free market values of lamb, by requiring all product prices be reported thus maintaining industry transparency.

A recent attempt to make all livestock industries more transparent, is not as beneficial however. The USDA Grain Inspection, Packers, and Stockyard Administration, also referred to as GIPSA, requires that all marketing contracts are  made public, alters the definitions of collusion, price fixing, and undue preference in the market and bans packer to packer sale of livestock. Instead of benefiting the livestock production industries GIPSA results in lost opportunities and profits because quality and value added products might fall under undue preference putting the producers at risk to lawsuits. There is also concern that GIPSA violates producers privacy by requiring all contracts be made available to the public and as such GIPSA supports industry consolidation rather than small producers.